This work focuses on the staffing of the federal district and appellate courts from 1869-1992. Using a large data set that includes information on appointments and voluntary departures, the importance of government control (unified versus divided) to institutional change is showcased. The analysis is divided into three eras (1869-1932, 1933-68, and 1969-92), each of which was dominated by one of the two parties. The nature of partisan transformation...